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𝗦𝗘𝗥𝗚𝗜𝗨 𝗖𝗘𝗟𝗜𝗕𝗜𝗗𝗔𝗖𝗛𝗘 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗔𝗡𝗧𝗢𝗡 𝗕𝗥𝗨𝗖𝗞𝗡𝗘𝗥: 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗠𝗘𝗧𝗔𝗣𝗛𝗬𝗦𝗜𝗖𝗦 𝗢𝗙 𝗦𝗢𝗨𝗡𝗗, 𝗦𝗜𝗟𝗘𝗡𝗖𝗘, 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗧𝗜𝗠𝗘 Among the great Bruckner conductors of the twentieth century, 𝗦𝗲𝗿𝗴𝗶𝘂 𝗖𝗲𝗹𝗶𝗯𝗶𝗱𝗮𝗰𝗵𝗲 occupies a position unlike anyone else. He was not a “Brucknerian”…

𝗚𝗨̈𝗡𝗧𝗘𝗥 𝗪𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗔𝗡𝗧𝗢𝗡 𝗕𝗥𝗨𝗖𝗞𝗡𝗘𝗥: 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗚𝗥𝗔𝗡𝗜𝗧𝗘 𝗔𝗥𝗖𝗛𝗜𝗧𝗘𝗖𝗧 𝗢𝗙 𝗕𝗥𝗨𝗖𝗞𝗡𝗘𝗥’𝗦 𝗦𝗬𝗠𝗣𝗛𝗢𝗡𝗜𝗖 𝗖𝗔𝗧𝗛𝗘𝗗𝗥𝗔𝗟𝗦 Among the great Bruckner conductors of the twentieth century, 𝗚𝘂̈𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝗪𝗮𝗻𝗱 occupies a place of exceptional authority. His Bruckner is not theatrical,…

𝗛𝗘𝗥𝗕𝗘𝗥𝗧 𝗩𝗢𝗡 𝗞𝗔𝗥𝗔𝗝𝗔𝗡 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗔𝗡𝗧𝗢𝗡 𝗕𝗥𝗨𝗖𝗞𝗡𝗘𝗥: 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗦𝗢𝗨𝗡𝗗 𝗢𝗙 𝗚𝗥𝗔𝗡𝗜𝗧𝗘, 𝗟𝗜𝗚𝗛𝗧, 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗦𝗣𝗜𝗥𝗜𝗧𝗨𝗔𝗟 𝗠𝗢𝗡𝗨𝗠𝗘𝗡𝗧𝗔𝗟𝗜𝗧𝗬 Among the great conductors of 𝗔𝗻𝘁𝗼𝗻 𝗕𝗿𝘂𝗰𝗸𝗻𝗲𝗿, 𝗛𝗲𝗿𝗯𝗲𝗿𝘁 𝘃𝗼𝗻 𝗞𝗮𝗿𝗮𝗷𝗮𝗻 occupies a very special place. He was not the most…

𝗘𝗥𝗜𝗖𝗛 𝗞𝗟𝗘𝗜𝗕𝗘𝗥’𝗦 𝗕𝗘𝗘𝗧𝗛𝗢𝗩𝗘𝗡: 𝗧𝗛𝗘 “𝗘𝗥𝗢𝗜𝗖𝗔” 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗡𝗜𝗡𝗧𝗛 𝗧𝗛𝗔𝗧 𝗛𝗜𝗦 𝗦𝗢𝗡 𝗡𝗘𝗩𝗘𝗥 𝗖𝗢𝗡𝗗𝗨𝗖𝗧𝗘𝗗 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗣𝗮𝗿𝗮𝗱𝗼𝘅 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗞𝗹𝗲𝗶𝗯𝗲𝗿 𝗟𝗲𝗴𝗮𝗰𝘆 One of the most fascinating paradoxes in the history of conducting is that 𝗖𝗮𝗿𝗹𝗼𝘀 𝗞𝗹𝗲𝗶𝗯𝗲𝗿,…

𝗖𝗔𝗥𝗟𝗢𝗦 𝗞𝗟𝗘𝗜𝗕𝗘𝗥 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗦𝗛𝗔𝗗𝗢𝗪 𝗢𝗙 𝗛𝗜𝗦 𝗙𝗔𝗧𝗛𝗘𝗥 𝗘𝗿𝗶𝗰𝗵 𝗞𝗹𝗲𝗶𝗯𝗲𝗿, 𝗣𝗮𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝗔𝘂𝘁𝗵𝗼𝗿𝗶𝘁𝘆, 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗣𝘀𝘆𝗰𝗵𝗼𝗹𝗼𝗴𝘆 𝗼𝗳 𝗣𝗲𝗿𝗳𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 Few relationships in the history of conducting have been more fascinating, more frequently invoked, and more difficult…

𝗙𝗿𝗼𝗺 𝗥𝗲𝗯𝗲𝗹𝗹𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝘁𝗼 𝗪𝗼𝗿𝗹𝗱 𝗢𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗮 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗖𝗵𝗶𝗲𝗳 𝗖𝗼𝗻𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘀 𝗪𝗵𝗼 𝗦𝗵𝗮𝗽𝗲𝗱 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗕𝗲𝗿𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗲𝗿 𝗣𝗵𝗶𝗹𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗺𝗼𝗻𝗶𝗸𝗲𝗿 The history of the 𝗕𝗲𝗿𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗲𝗿 𝗣𝗵𝗶𝗹𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗺𝗼𝗻𝗶𝗸𝗲𝗿 begins not with a royal decree, a wealthy patron or the carefully planned creation of…

𝗔 𝗩𝗶𝗲𝗻𝗻𝗲𝘀𝗲 𝗠𝘆𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗿𝘆 𝗶𝗻 𝗦𝗶𝘅 𝗤𝘂𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗲𝘁𝘀 𝗣𝗿𝗲𝘀𝘂𝗺𝗲𝗱 𝗕𝗲𝗲𝘁𝗵𝗼𝘃𝗲𝗻: 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗦𝗶𝘅 𝗦𝘁𝗿𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗤𝘂𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗲𝘁𝘀, 𝗔𝗻𝗵. 𝟮 𝗤𝘂𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗲𝘁𝘁𝗼 𝗔𝗹𝗹𝗮 𝗠𝗮𝗻𝗶𝗲𝗿𝗮 𝗜𝘁𝗮𝗹𝗶𝗮𝗻𝗮 — 𝗔𝗿𝗰𝗮𝗻𝗮, 𝗔𝟱𝟵𝟭 There is something deeply fascinating about music that survives without a secure name.…

𝗩𝗶𝘃𝗮𝗹𝗱𝗶 – 𝗢𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗮𝘀 𝗖𝗵𝗿𝗼𝗻𝗼𝗹𝗼𝗴𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗖𝗮𝘁𝗮𝗹𝗼𝗴𝘂𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗗𝗼𝗰𝘂𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗱 𝗢𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗰 𝗪𝗼𝗿𝗸𝘀 https://www.patreon.com/collection/2196815 (Complete Audio and Booklets in Patreon) Beyond his universally admired concertos, Antonio Vivaldi was one of the most active operatic composers and theatrical…

𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗖𝗼𝗻𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗛𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘆 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗩𝗶𝗲𝗻𝗻𝗮 𝗣𝗵𝗶𝗹𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗺𝗼𝗻𝗶𝗰 𝗙𝗿𝗼𝗺 𝗢𝘁𝘁𝗼 𝗡𝗶𝗰𝗼𝗹𝗮𝗶 𝘁𝗼 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗠𝗼𝗱𝗲𝗿𝗻 𝗚𝘂𝗲𝘀𝘁-𝗖𝗼𝗻𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿 𝗦𝘆𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗺: 𝗔 𝗖𝗵𝗿𝗼𝗻𝗶𝗰𝗹𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝗔𝘂𝘁𝗼𝗻𝗼𝗺𝘆, 𝗧𝗿𝗮𝗱𝗶𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗚𝗿𝗲𝗮𝘁 𝗠𝘂𝘀𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗣𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗻𝗲𝗿𝘀𝗵𝗶𝗽𝘀 The history of the 𝗩𝗶𝗲𝗻𝗻𝗮 𝗣𝗵𝗶𝗹𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗺𝗼𝗻𝗶𝗰 requires a fundamental clarification…

𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗣𝗢𝗥𝗧𝗥𝗔𝗜𝗧 𝗢𝗙 𝗕𝗔𝗖𝗛 𝗧𝗛𝗔𝗧 𝗪𝗔𝗦 𝗟𝗢𝗦𝗧 𝗜𝗡 𝗪𝗢𝗥𝗟𝗗 𝗪𝗔𝗥 𝗧𝗪𝗢 𝗔𝗻 𝗔𝘂𝘁𝗵𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗶𝗰 “𝗔𝗹𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗲” 𝘁𝗼 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗛𝗮𝘂𝘀𝘀𝗺𝗮𝗻𝗻 𝗜𝗺𝗮𝗴𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝗝𝗼𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗻 𝗦𝗲𝗯𝗮𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗮𝗻 𝗕𝗮𝗰𝗵 𝗶𝗻 𝗛𝗶𝘀 𝗘𝗮𝗿𝗹𝘆 𝗦𝗶𝘅𝘁𝗶𝗲𝘀 Among the images associated with 𝗝𝗼𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗻 𝗦𝗲𝗯𝗮𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗮𝗻 𝗕𝗮𝗰𝗵,…

𝗝𝗢𝗛𝗔𝗡𝗡 𝗦𝗘𝗕𝗔𝗦𝗧𝗜𝗔𝗡 𝗕𝗔𝗖𝗛 𝗖. 𝗙. 𝗔𝗯𝗱𝘆 𝗪𝗶𝗹𝗹𝗶𝗮𝗺𝘀 — 𝗖𝗵𝗮𝗽𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝗜𝗩 𝗖𝗼̈𝘁𝗵𝗲𝗻: 𝗖𝗵𝗮𝗺𝗯𝗲𝗿 𝗠𝘂𝘀𝗶𝗰, 𝗣𝗿𝗶𝘃𝗮𝘁𝗲 𝗦𝗼𝗿𝗿𝗼𝘄, 𝗔𝗻𝗱 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗥𝗼𝗮𝗱 𝗧𝗼 𝗟𝗲𝗶𝗽𝘇𝗶𝗴 𝗜. 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗠𝗲𝗮𝗻𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗢𝗳 𝗖𝗵𝗮𝗽𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝗜𝗩 Chapter IV of C. F. Abdy Williams’s 𝗕𝗮𝗰𝗵…

𝗚𝘂𝘀𝘁𝗮𝘃 𝗠𝗮𝗵𝗹𝗲𝗿 𝗶𝗻 𝗔𝗺𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗱𝗮𝗺 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗖𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝗧𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝗕𝗲𝗰𝗮𝗺𝗲 𝗛𝗶𝘀 “𝗦𝗲𝗰𝗼𝗻𝗱 𝗠𝘂𝘀𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗛𝗼𝗺𝗲𝗹𝗮𝗻𝗱” There is a revealing paradox at the heart of Gustav Mahler’s relationship with Amsterdam. He was not especially enchanted by the city…

𝗦𝗜𝗥 𝗦𝗜𝗠𝗢𝗡 𝗥𝗔𝗧𝗧𝗟𝗘 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗕𝗘𝗥𝗟𝗜𝗡𝗘𝗥 𝗣𝗛𝗜𝗟𝗛𝗔𝗥𝗠𝗢𝗡𝗜𝗞𝗘𝗥 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗼𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗮 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝟮𝟭𝘀𝘁 𝗰𝗲𝗻𝘁𝘂𝗿𝘆 𝗧𝗿𝗮𝗻𝘀𝗽𝗮𝗿𝗲𝗻𝗰𝘆, 𝗲𝗱𝘂𝗰𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻, 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗺𝗽𝗼𝗿𝗮𝗿𝘆 𝗺𝘂𝘀𝗶𝗰 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗱𝗶𝗴𝗶𝘁𝗮𝗹 𝗿𝗲𝗶𝗻𝘃𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗖𝗵𝗶𝗲𝗳 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗰 𝗱𝗶𝗿𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿, 𝟮𝟬𝟬𝟮–𝟮𝟬𝟭𝟴 𝗙𝗿𝗼𝗺 𝗔𝗯𝗯𝗮𝗱𝗼 𝘁𝗼 𝗥𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗹𝗲: 𝗮 𝗻𝗲𝘄 𝗾𝘂𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗳𝗼𝗿…

𝗖𝗟𝗔𝗨𝗗𝗜𝗢 𝗔𝗕𝗕𝗔𝗗𝗢 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗕𝗘𝗥𝗟𝗜𝗡𝗘𝗥 𝗣𝗛𝗜𝗟𝗛𝗔𝗥𝗠𝗢𝗡𝗜𝗞𝗘𝗥 “𝗜’𝗺 𝗖𝗹𝗮𝘂𝗱𝗶𝗼 𝗳𝗼𝗿 𝗲𝘃𝗲𝗿𝘆𝗼𝗻𝗲.” 𝗔 𝗻𝗲𝘄 𝗮𝗴𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗿𝗮𝗻𝘀𝗽𝗮𝗿𝗲𝗻𝗰𝘆, 𝗱𝗶𝗮𝗹𝗼𝗴𝘂𝗲 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗺𝘂𝘀𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗱𝗶𝘀𝗰𝗼𝘃𝗲𝗿𝘆 𝗖𝗵𝗶𝗲𝗳 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿, 𝟭𝟵𝟵𝟬–𝟮𝟬𝟬𝟮 𝗔𝗳𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝗞𝗮𝗿𝗮𝗷𝗮𝗻: 𝗮𝗻 𝗼𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗮 𝗮𝘁 𝗮 𝗵𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗼𝗿𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹 𝗰𝗿𝗼𝘀𝘀𝗿𝗼𝗮𝗱𝘀 When 𝗖𝗹𝗮𝘂𝗱𝗶𝗼 𝗔𝗯𝗯𝗮𝗱𝗼 was…

𝗛𝗘𝗥𝗕𝗘𝗥𝗧 𝗩𝗢𝗡 𝗞𝗔𝗥𝗔𝗝𝗔𝗡 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗕𝗘𝗥𝗟𝗜𝗡𝗘𝗥 𝗣𝗛𝗜𝗟𝗛𝗔𝗥𝗠𝗢𝗡𝗜𝗞𝗘𝗥 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗮𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗶𝘁𝗲𝗰𝘁 𝗼𝗳 𝘀𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱, 𝗶𝗺𝗮𝗴𝗲 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗴𝗹𝗼𝗯𝗮𝗹 𝗽𝗿𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗴𝗲 𝗖𝗵𝗶𝗲𝗳 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿, 𝟭𝟵𝟱𝟲–𝟭𝟵𝟴𝟵 𝗔 𝗻𝗲𝘄 𝗲𝗿𝗮 𝗮𝗳𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝗙𝘂𝗿𝘁𝘄𝗮̈𝗻𝗴𝗹𝗲𝗿 When 𝗛𝗲𝗿𝗯𝗲𝗿𝘁 𝘃𝗼𝗻 𝗞𝗮𝗿𝗮𝗷𝗮𝗻 became chief conductor of the 𝗕𝗲𝗿𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗲𝗿 𝗣𝗵𝗶𝗹𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗺𝗼𝗻𝗶𝗸𝗲𝗿…

𝗦𝗘𝗥𝗚𝗜𝗨 𝗖𝗘𝗟𝗜𝗕𝗜𝗗𝗔𝗖𝗛𝗘 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗕𝗘𝗥𝗟𝗜𝗡𝗘𝗥 𝗣𝗛𝗜𝗟𝗛𝗔𝗥𝗠𝗢𝗡𝗜𝗞𝗘𝗥 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝘆𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗴 𝘂𝗻𝗸𝗻𝗼𝘄𝗻 𝘄𝗵𝗼 𝗿𝗲𝗯𝘂𝗶𝗹𝘁 𝗮𝗻 𝗼𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗮 𝗶𝗻 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗿𝘂𝗶𝗻𝘀 𝗼𝗳 𝗕𝗲𝗿𝗹𝗶𝗻 — 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘄𝗵𝗼 𝗿𝗲𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗻𝗲𝗱 𝗳𝗼𝗿 𝗼𝗻𝗲 𝗳𝗶𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝘁𝗿𝗶𝘂𝗺𝗽𝗵 𝟭𝟵𝟰𝟱–𝟭𝟵𝟱𝟰 | 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗿𝗲𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝟭𝟵𝟵𝟮 𝗔𝗻 𝗼𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗮…

𝗧𝗛𝗘 “𝗥𝗘𝗜𝗖𝗛 𝗢𝗥𝗖𝗛𝗘𝗦𝗧𝗥𝗔” 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗕𝗲𝗿𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗲𝗿 𝗣𝗵𝗶𝗹𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗺𝗼𝗻𝗶𝗸𝗲𝗿 𝗶𝗻 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗡𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝗦𝗼𝗰𝗶𝗮𝗹𝗶𝘀𝘁 𝗘𝗿𝗮 𝗦𝘂𝗿𝘃𝗶𝘃𝗮𝗹, 𝗽𝗿𝗶𝘃𝗶𝗹𝗲𝗴𝗲, 𝗰𝗼𝗺𝗽𝗿𝗼𝗺𝗶𝘀𝗲 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗺𝗲𝗺𝗼𝗿𝘆, 𝟭𝟵𝟯𝟯–𝟭𝟵𝟰𝟱 𝗔 𝘄𝗮𝘁𝗲𝗿𝘀𝗵𝗲𝗱 𝗶𝗻 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗵𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘆 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗼𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗮 The years between 𝟭𝟵𝟯𝟯 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝟭𝟵𝟰𝟱 constitute the most…

𝗙𝗢𝗨𝗥 𝗗𝗘𝗦𝗧𝗜𝗡𝗜𝗘𝗦 𝗜𝗻 𝗺𝗲𝗺𝗼𝗿𝘆 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗝𝗲𝘄𝗶𝘀𝗵 𝗺𝗲𝗺𝗯𝗲𝗿𝘀 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗕𝗲𝗿𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗲𝗿 𝗣𝗵𝗶𝗹𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗺𝗼𝗻𝗶𝗸𝗲𝗿 𝗦𝘇𝘆𝗺𝗼𝗻 𝗚𝗼𝗹𝗱𝗯𝗲𝗿𝗴, 𝗚𝗶𝗹𝗯𝗲𝗿𝘁 𝗕𝗮𝗰𝗸, 𝗡𝗶𝗰𝗼𝗹𝗮𝗶 𝗚𝗿𝗮𝘂𝗱𝗮𝗻 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗝𝗼𝘀𝗲𝗽𝗵 𝗦𝗰𝗵𝘂𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝗙𝗼𝘂𝗿 𝗺𝘂𝘀𝗶𝗰𝗶𝗮𝗻𝘀 𝗯𝗲𝗳𝗼𝗿𝗲 𝗵𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘆 𝗰𝗮𝘀𝘁 𝘁𝗵𝗲𝗺 𝗶𝗻𝘁𝗼 𝗲𝘅𝗶𝗹𝗲 Around 1930, a photograph preserved…

𝗪𝗜𝗟𝗛𝗘𝗟𝗠 𝗙𝗨𝗥𝗧𝗪𝗔̈𝗡𝗚𝗟𝗘𝗥 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗕𝗘𝗥𝗟𝗜𝗡𝗘𝗥 𝗣𝗛𝗜𝗟𝗛𝗔𝗥𝗠𝗢𝗡𝗜𝗞𝗘𝗥 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗺𝗮𝗴𝗶𝗰𝗶𝗮𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝘀𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱 𝗰𝗮𝘂𝗴𝗵𝘁 𝗯𝗲𝘁𝘄𝗲𝗲𝗻 𝗺𝘂𝘀𝗶𝗰, 𝗽𝗼𝘄𝗲𝗿 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗵𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘆 𝗖𝗵𝗶𝗲𝗳 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿, 𝟭𝟵𝟮𝟮–𝟭𝟵𝟯𝟰 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝟭𝟵𝟱𝟮–𝟭𝟵𝟱𝟰 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝘁𝗵𝗶𝗿𝗱 𝗴𝗿𝗲𝗮𝘁 𝗮𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗶𝘁𝗲𝗰𝘁 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗼𝗿𝗰𝗵𝗲𝘀𝘁𝗿𝗮’𝘀 𝗶𝗱𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗶𝘁𝘆 In the early history of…

𝗔𝗥𝗧𝗜𝗦𝗧𝗜𝗖𝗔𝗟𝗟𝗬 𝗕𝗥𝗜𝗟𝗟𝗜𝗔𝗡𝗧, 𝗙𝗜𝗡𝗔𝗡𝗖𝗜𝗔𝗟𝗟𝗬 𝗗𝗘𝗦𝗣𝗘𝗥𝗔𝗧𝗘 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗕𝗲𝗿𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗲𝗿 𝗣𝗵𝗶𝗹𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗺𝗼𝗻𝗶𝗸𝗲𝗿 𝗶𝗻 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝟭𝟵𝟮𝟬𝘀 𝗙𝗿𝗼𝗺 𝗔𝗿𝘁𝗵𝘂𝗿 𝗡𝗶𝗸𝗶𝘀𝗰𝗵 𝘁𝗼 𝗪𝗶𝗹𝗵𝗲𝗹𝗺 𝗙𝘂𝗿𝘁𝘄𝗮̈𝗻𝗴𝗹𝗲𝗿: 𝗴𝗿𝗲𝗮𝘁 𝗮𝗿𝘁, 𝗺𝗼𝗱𝗲𝗿𝗻𝗶𝘁𝘆, 𝗲𝗰𝗼𝗻𝗼𝗺𝗶𝗰 𝗰𝗿𝗶𝘀𝗶𝘀 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗶𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝗴𝗹𝗼𝗿𝘆 𝗔 𝗻𝗲𝘄 𝗱𝗲𝗰𝗮𝗱𝗲 𝗶𝗻 𝗮 𝗻𝗲𝘄 𝗚𝗲𝗿𝗺𝗮𝗻𝘆 The 1920s opened…

𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗕𝗘𝗥𝗟𝗜𝗡𝗘𝗥 𝗣𝗛𝗜𝗟𝗛𝗔𝗥𝗠𝗢𝗡𝗜𝗞𝗘𝗥 𝗜𝗡 𝗧𝗛𝗘 𝗙𝗜𝗥𝗦𝗧 𝗪𝗢𝗥𝗟𝗗 𝗪𝗔𝗥 𝗠𝘂𝘀𝗶𝗰, 𝗽𝗮𝘁𝗿𝗶𝗼𝘁𝗶𝘀𝗺, 𝗰𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗰𝘂𝗹𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗮𝗹 𝗽𝗿𝗼𝗽𝗮𝗴𝗮𝗻𝗱𝗮 𝘂𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗿 𝗔𝗿𝘁𝗵𝘂𝗿 𝗡𝗶𝗸𝗶𝘀𝗰𝗵 𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟰–𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟴 𝗪𝗵𝗲𝗻 𝘄𝗮𝗿 𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗲𝗱 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝗰𝗲𝗿𝘁 𝗵𝗮𝗹𝗹 When the First World War broke out in the summer…

𝗝𝗲𝗮𝗻 𝗠𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗼𝗻 𝗢𝗿𝗶𝗴𝗶𝗻𝘀, 𝗙𝗼𝗿𝗺𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻, 𝗧𝗲𝗮𝗰𝗵𝗲𝗿𝘀, 𝗔𝗻𝗱 𝗛𝗶𝘀 𝗥𝗶𝘀𝗲 𝗧𝗼 𝗖𝗼𝗻𝘀𝗲𝗰𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗔𝘀 𝗔 𝗖𝗼𝗻𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿 𝗝𝗲𝗮𝗻 𝗠𝗮𝗿𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗼𝗻 — born on 𝗝𝗮𝗻𝘂𝗮𝗿𝘆 𝟭𝟬, 𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟬, in 𝗟𝘆𝗼𝗻, France, and died on 𝗠𝗮𝗿𝗰𝗵 𝟭, 𝟭𝟵𝟳𝟲, in Paris — was…

𝗡𝗮𝗼𝘂𝗺 𝗕𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗿 𝗥𝘂𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗮𝗻-𝗔𝗺𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗻 𝗩𝗶𝗼𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗶𝘀𝘁, 𝗖𝗼𝗻𝗰𝗲𝗿𝘁𝗺𝗮𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗿, 𝗔𝗻𝗱 𝗧𝗲𝗮𝗰𝗵𝗲𝗿 𝗢𝗳 𝗜𝘀𝗮𝗮𝗰 𝗦𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗻 𝗡𝗮𝗼𝘂𝗺 𝗕𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗿 — born on 𝗝𝘂𝗹𝘆 𝟭𝟵, 𝟭𝟴𝟴𝟵, in 𝗬𝗲𝘃𝗽𝗮𝘁𝗼𝗿𝗶𝗮, then part of the 𝗥𝘂𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗮𝗻 𝗘𝗺𝗽𝗶𝗿𝗲 and today in 𝗨𝗸𝗿𝗮𝗶𝗻𝗲, and died on 𝗡𝗼𝘃𝗲𝗺𝗯𝗲𝗿…

𝗧𝗵𝗲𝗼𝗱𝗼𝗿𝗲 𝗧𝗵𝗼𝗺𝗮𝘀 𝗖𝗼𝗻𝗱𝘂𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿 𝗔 𝗦𝘂𝗺𝗺𝗮𝗿𝘆 𝗢𝗳 𝗛𝗶𝘀 𝗟𝗶𝗳𝗲, 𝗖𝗮𝗿𝗲𝗲𝗿, 𝗔𝗻𝗱 𝗣𝗿𝗼𝗳𝗲𝘀𝘀𝗶𝗼𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝗔𝗰𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝗧𝗵𝗲𝗼𝗱𝗼𝗿𝗲 𝗧𝗵𝗼𝗺𝗮𝘀 — born 𝗢𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗯𝗲𝗿 𝟭𝟭, 𝟭𝟴𝟯𝟱, in 𝗘𝘀𝗲𝗻𝘀, East Frisia, and died 𝗝𝗮𝗻𝘂𝗮𝗿𝘆 𝟰, 𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟱, in 𝗖𝗵𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗴𝗼 — was one of…